THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1917-1947)

Advent of Gandhi

The third and final phase of the Nationalist Movement [1917-1947] is known as
the Gandhian era. During this period Mahatma Gandhi became the undisputed leader of the
National Movement. His principles of nonviolence and Satyagraha were employed against the British Government. Gandhi made the nationalist movement a mass movement.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born at Porbandar in Gujarat on 2 October 1869. He
studied law in England. He returned to India in 1891. In April 1893 he went to South Africa and involved himself in the struggle against apartheid (Racial discrimination against the Blacks) for twenty years. Finally, he came to India in 1915.
Thereafter, he fully involved himself in the Indian National Movement. Mahatma Gandhi began his experiments with Satyagraha against the oppressive European indigo planters at Champaran in
Bihar in 1917. In the next year he launched another Satyagraha at Kheda in Gujarat in support of the peasants who were not able to pay the land tax due to failure of crops. During this struggle, Sardar
Vallabhai Patel emerged as one of the trusted followers of Gandhi.
In 1918, Gandhi undertook a fast unto death for the cause of Ahmedabad Mill Workers and finally the mill owners conceded the just demands of the workers.
On the whole, the local movements at Champaran, Kheda and Ahmedabad brought Mahatma Gandhi closer to the life of the people and their problems at the grass roots level. Consequently, he became
the leader of the masses.

Rowlatt Act (1919)

In 1917, a committee was set up under the presidentship of Sir Sydney Rowlatt to look into the militant Nationalist activities. On the basis of its report the Rowlatt Act was passed in March 1919 by the
Central Legislative Council. As per this Act, any person could be arrested on the basis of suspicion. No appeal or petition could be filed against such arrests. This Act was called the Black Act and it was widely opposed. An all-India hartal was organized on 6 April 1919. Meetings were held all over the country. Mahatma Gandhi was arrested near Delhi. Two prominent leaders of Punjab, Dr Satya
Pal and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew, were arrested in Amritsar.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April, 1919)

The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre took place on 13 April 1919 and it remained a turning point in the history of India’s freedom movement. In Punjab, there was an unprecedented support to the Rowlatt Satyagraha. Facing a violent situation, the Government of Punjab handed over the administration to the military authorities under General Dyer. He banned all public meetings and detained the political leaders. On 13 th April, the Baisakhi day (harvest festival), a public meeting was organized at the Jallianwala Bagh (garden). Dyer marched in and without any warning opened fire on the crowd. The
firing continued for about 10 to 15 minutes and it stopped only after the ammunition exhausted. According to official report 379 people were killed and 1137 wounded in the incident. There was a nationwide protest against this massacre and Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood as a protest. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre gave a tremendous impetus to the freedom struggle.

Khilafat Movement

The chief cause of the Khilafat Movement was the defeat of Turkey in the First World War. The harsh terms of the Treaty of Sevres (1920) was felt by the Muslims as a great insult to them.
The whole movement was based on the Muslim belief that the Caliph (the Sultan of Turkey) was the religious head of the Muslims all over the world. The Muslims in India were upset over the British attitude against Turkey and launched the Khilafat Movement.
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, M.A. Ansari, Saifuddin Kitchlew and the Ali brothers were the prominent leaders of this movement.
A Khilafat Committee had been formed and on 19th October 1919, the whole country had observed the Khilafat day. On 23 November, a joint conference of the Hindus and the Muslims had also been held
under the chairmanship of Mahatma Gandhi. Mahatma Gandhi was particularly interested in bringing the Hindus and the Muslims together to achieve the country’s independence. Subsequently, the Khilafat
Movement merged with the Non-Cooperation Movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi in 1920.

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)

Mahatma Gandhi announced his plan to begin Non-Cooperation
with the government as a sequel to the Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh
massacre and the Khilafat Movement. It was approved by the Indian
National Congress at the Nagpur session in December, 1920.
Programmes
The programmes of the Non-Cooperation Movement were:
 Surrender of titles and honorary positions.
 Resignation of membership from the local bodies.
 Boycott of elections held under the provisions of the 1919
Act.
 Boycott of government functions.
 Boycott of courts, government schools and colleges.
 Boycott of foreign goods.
 Establishment of national schools, colleges and private
panchayat courts.
 Popularizing swadeshi goods and khadi.
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The movement began with Mahatma Gandhi renouncing the
titles, which were given by the British. Other leaders and influential
persons also followed him by surrendering their honorary posts and
titles. Students came out of the government educational institutions.
National schools such as the Kashi Vidyapeeth, the Bihar Vidyapeeth
and the Jamia Millia Islamia were set up. All the prominent leaders
of the country gave up their lucrative legal practice. Legislatures
were boycotted. No leader of the Congress came forward to contest
the elections for the Legislatures.
In 1921, mass demonstrations were held against the Prince of
Wales during his tour of India. The government resorted to strong
measures of repression. Many leaders were arrested. The Congress
and the Khilafat Committees were proclaimed as illegal. At several
places, bonfires of foreign clothes were organised. The message of
Swadeshi spread everywhere. Most of the households took to
weaving cloths with the help of charkhas.
But the whole movement was abruptly called off on 11th
February 1922 by Gandhi following the Churi Chaura incident in
the Gorakpur district of U.P. Earlier on 5th February an angry mob
set fire to the police station at Churi Chaura and twenty two police
men were burnt to death. Many top leaders of the country were
stunned at this sudden suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement.
Mahatma Gandhi was arrested on 10 March 1922.
Significance of the Non-Cooperation Movement
1. It was the real mass movement with the participation of
different sections of Indian society such as peasants, workers,
students, teachers and women.
2. It witnessed the spread of nationalism to the remote corners of
India.
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3. It also marked the height of Hindu-Muslim unity as a result of
the merger of Khilafat movement.
4. It demonstrated the willingness and ability of the masses to
endure hardships and make sacrifices.
Swaraj Party
The suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement led to a
split within Congress in the Gaya session of the Congress in
December 1922. Leaders like Motilal Nehru and Chittranjan Das
formed a separate group within the Congress
known as the Swaraj Party on 1 January 1923.
The Swarajists wanted to contest the council
elections and wreck the government from within.
Elections to Legislative Councils were held in
November 1923. In this, the Swaraj Party gained
impressive successes. In the Central Legislative
Council Motilal Nehru became the leader of the
party whereas in Bengal the party was headed by C.R. Das.
The Swaraj Party did several significant things in the Legislative
Council. It demanded the setting up of responsible government in
India with the necessary changes in the Government of India Act of
1919. The party could pass important resolutions against the repressive
laws of the government. When a Committee chaired by the Home
Member, Alexander Muddiman considered the system of Dyarchy
as proper, a resolution was passed against it in the Central Legislative
Council. After the passing away of C.R. Das in June 1925, the Swarj
Party started weakening.
Simon Commission (1927)
The Act of 1919 included a provision for its review after a
lapse of ten years. However, the review commission was appointed
M O T IL A L N E H R U
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by the British Government two years earlier of its schedule in 1927.
It came to be known as Simon Commission after the name of its
chairman, Sir John Simon. All its seven members were Englishmen.
As there was no Indian member in it, the Commission faced a lot of
criticism even before its landing in India. Almost all the political parties
including the Congress decided to oppose the Commission.
On the fateful day of 3 February 1928 when the Commission
reached Bombay, a general hartal was observed all over the country.
Everywhere it was greeted with black flags and the cries of ‘Simon
go back’. At Lahore, the students took out a large anti-Simon
Commission demonstration on 30 October 1928 under the leadership
of Lala Lajpat Rai. In this demonstration, Lala Lajpat Rai was
seriously injured in the police lathi charge and he passed away after
one month.
The report of the Simon Commission was published in May
1930. It was stated that the constitutional experiment with Dyarchy
was unsuccessful and in its place the report recommended the
establishment of autonomous government. There is no doubt that the
Simon Commission’s Report became the basis for enacting the
Government of India Act of 1935.
Nehru Report (1928)
In the meanwhile, the Secretary of State, Lord Birkenhead,
challenged the Indians to produce a Constitution that would be
acceptable to all. The challenge was accepted by the Congress, which
convened an all party meeting on 28 February 1928. A committee
consisting of eight was constituted to draw up a blueprint for the
future Constitution of India. It was headed by Motilal Nehru. The
Report published by this Committee came to be known as the Nehru
Report. The Report favoured:
· Dominion Status as the next immediate step.
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However, the leader of the Muslim League, Mohammad Ali
Jinnah regarded it as detrimental to the interests of the Muslims.
Jinnah convened an All India Conference of the Muslims where he
drew up a list of Fourteen Points as Muslim League demand.
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934)
In the prevailing atmosphere of restlessness, the annual session of the
Congress was held at Lahore in December 1929. During this session presided
over by Jawaharlal Nehru the Congress passed the Poorna Swarajresolution.
Moreover, as the government failed to accept the Nehru Report, the Congress
gave a call to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement. The Congress had
also observed January 26, 1930 as the Day of Independence. Since then
January 26th had been observed as a day of independence every year. The
same date later became the Republic Day when the Indian Constitution was
enforced in 1950.
The Dandi March
Thus, the stage was set for the
second major struggle led by the
Congress. On 12 th March 1930,
Gandhi began his famous March to
Dandi with his chosen 79 followers to
break the salt laws. He reached the
coast of Dandi on 5 April 1930 after
marching a distance of 200 miles and on 6 April formally launched
the Civil Disobedience Movement by breaking the salt laws.
Dandi March
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On 9 April, Mahatma Gandhi laid out the programme of the
movement which included making of salt in every village in violation
of the existing salt laws; picketing by women before the shops selling
liquor, opium and foreign clothes; organising the bonfires of foreign
clothes; spinning clothes by using charkha fighting untouchability;
boycotting of schools and colleges by students and resigning from
government jobs by the people. Over and above all these, the
programme also called upon the people not to pay taxes to the
government.
Soon, the movement spread to all parts of the country. Students,
workers, farmers and women, all participated in this movement with
great enthusiasm. As a reaction, the British Government arrested
important leaders of the Congress and imprisoned them.
Round Table Conference
The British government adopted the strategy of talking to
different political parties by convening the Round Table Conferences.
The first Round Table Conference was held in November 1930 at
London and it was boycotted it by the Congress.
In January 1931 in order to create a conducive atmosphere for
talks, the government lifted the ban on the Congress Party and
released its leaders from prison. On 8 March 1931 the Gandhi-Irwin
Pact was signed. As per this pact, Mahatma Gandhi agreed to suspend
the Civil-Disobedience Movement and participate in the SecondRound Table Conference. In September 1931, the Second Round
Table Conference was held at London. Mahatma Gandhi participated
in the Conference but returned to India disappointed as no agreement
could be reached on the demand of complete independence and on
the communal question.
In January 1932, the Civil-Disobedience Movement was
resumed. The government responded to it by arresting Mahatma
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Gandhi and Sardar Patel and by reimposing the ban on the Congress
party.
Poona Pact (1932)
By 1930, Dr Ambedkar had become a leader of national stature
championing the cause of the depressed people of the country. While
presenting a real picture of the condition of these people in the First
Round Table Conference, he had demanded separate electorates for
them. On 16 August 1932 the British Prime Minister Ramsay
MacDonald made an announcement, which came to be as the
Communal Award. According to this award, the depressed classes
were considered as a separate community and as such provisions
were made for separate electorates for them. Mahatma Gandhi
protested against the Communal Award and went on a fast unto death
in the Yeravada jail on 20 September 1932.
Finally, an agreement was reached between Dr Ambedkar and
Gandhi. This agreement came to be called as the Poona Pact. The
British Government also approved of it. Accordingly, 148 seats in
different Provincial Legislatures were reserved for the Depressed
Classes in place of 71 as provided in the Communal Award.
The third Round Table Conference came to an end in 1932.
The Congress once more did not take part in it. Nonetheless, in March
1933, the British Government issued a White Paper, which became
the basis for the enactment of the Government of India Act, 1935.
The Second World War and National Movement
In 1937 elections were held under the provisions of the
Government of India Act of 1935. Congress Ministries were formed
in seven states of India. On 1 September 1939 the Second World
War broke out. The British Government without consulting the people
of India involved the country in the war. The Congress vehemently
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opposed it and as a mark of protest the Congress Ministries in the
Provinces resigned on 12 December 1939. The Muslim League
celebrated that day as the Deliverance Day. In March 1940 the
Muslim League demanded the creation of Pakistan.
Individual Satyagraha
During the course of the Second World War
in order to secure the cooperation of the Indians,
the British Government made an announcement on
8 August 1940, which came to be known as the
‘August Offer’. The August Offer envisaged that
after the War a representative body of Indians
would be set up to frame the new Constitution. Gandhi was not
satisfied with is offer and decided to launch Individual Satyagraha.
Individual Satyagraha was limited, symbolic and non-violent in
nature and it was left to Mahatma Gandhi to choose the Satyagrahis.
Acharya Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer Satyagraha and he was
sentenced to three months imprisonment. Jawaharlal Nehru was the
second Satyagrahi and imprisoned for four months. The individual
Satyagraha continued for nearly 15 months.
Cripps Mission (1942)
In the meantime, the Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow
expanded his Executive Council by including five
more Indians into it in July 1941. However, in the
midst of worsening wartime international situation,
the British Government in its continued effort to
secure Indian cooperation sent Sir Stafford Cripps
to India on 23 March 1942. This is known as Cripps
Mission.
VINOBA BHAVE
SIR STAFFORD CRIPPS
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The main recommendations of Cripps were:
o The promise of Dominion Status to India,
o Protection of minorities
o setting up of a Constituent Assembly in which there
would be representatives from the Princely States along
with those of the British Provinces,
o There would be provision for any Province of British
India not prepared to accept this Constitution, either to
retain its present constitutional position or frame a
constitution of its own.
The major political parties of the country rejected the Cripps
proposals. Gandhi called Cripp’s proposals as a “Post-dated
Cheque”. They did not like the rights of the Princely States either to
send their representatives to the Constituent Assembly or to stay out
of the Indian Union. The Muslim League was also dissatisfied as its
demand for Pakistan had not been conceded in the proposal.
Quit India Movement (1942-1944)
The failure of the Cripps Mission and the fear of an impending
Japanese invasion of India led Mahatma Gandhi to begin his campaign
for the British to quit India. Mahatma Gandhi believed that an interim
government could be formed only after the British left India and the
Hindu-Muslim problem sorted out. The All India Congress Committee
met at Bombay on 8 August 1942 and passed the famous Quit India
Resolution. On the same day, Gandhi gave his call of ‘do or die’.
On 8th and 9th August 1942, the government arrested all the prominent leaders of the Congress. For once, this pre-planned action of the
government left the Indian people without leadership. Mahatma Gandhi
was kept in prison at Poona. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Abul Kalam
Azad, and other leaders were imprisoned in the Ahmednagar Fort.
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At this time, leadership was provided by Ram Manohar Lohia,
Achyuta and S.M. Joshi. The role of Jayaprakash Narain in this
movement was important. Large number of students also left their
schools and colleges to join the movement. The youth of the nation
also participated in this movement with patriotism. Strikes,
demonstrations and public meetings were organised in various towns
and cities. Slowly the movement reached the rural areas. In 1943, as
the movement gained further momentum, there were armed attacks
on government buildings in Madras and Bengal. In 1944 Mahatma
Gandhi was released from jail. Quit India Movement was the final
attempt for country’s freedom. The British Government ordered for
538 rounds of firing. Nearly 60,229 persons were jailed. At least
7,000 people were killed. This movement paved the way for India’s
freedom. It aroused among Indians the feelings of bravery, enthusiasm
and total sacrifice.
Indian National Army
During the course of the Second World
War, armed revolutionary activities continued to
take place. The role of Subhas Chandra Bose
towards such activities is incomparable. On 2
July 1943, Subhas Chandra Bose reached
Singapore and gave the rousing war cry of ‘Dilli
Chalo’. He was made the President of Indian
Independence League and soon became the
supreme commander of the Indian National
Army. He gave the country the slogan of Jai
Hind. The names of the INA’s three Brigades were the Subhas
Brigade, Gandhi Brigade and Nehru Brigade. The women’s wing of
the army was named after Rani Laxmibai.
The Indian National Army marched towards Imphal after
registering its victory over Kohima. After Japan’s surrender in 1945,
SUBHAS CHANDRA BOSE
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the INA failed in its efforts. Under such circumstances, Subhas went
to Taiwan. Then on his way to Tokyo he died on 18 August 1945 in a
plane crash.
The trial of the soldiers of INA was held at Red Fort in Delhi.
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai and Tej Bahadur Sapru
fought the case on behalf of the soldiers.
Cabinet Mission (1946)
After the Second World War, Lord Atlee became the Prime
Minister of England. On 15 March, 1946 Lord Atlee made a historic
announcement in which the right to self-determination and the framing
of a Constitution for India were conceded. Consequently, three
members of the British Cabinet – Pathick Lawrence, Sir Stafford
Cripps and A. V. Alexander – were sent to India. This is known as
the Cabinet Mission.
The Cabinet Mission put forward a plan for solution of the
constitutional problem. Provision was made for three groups of
provinces to possess their separate constitutions. The Cabinet Mission
also proposed the formation of a Union of India, comprising both the
British India and the Princely States. The Union would remain in
charge of only foreign affairs, defence and communications leaving
the residuary powers to be vested in the provinces. A proposal was
envisaged for setting up an Interim Government, which would remain
in office till a new government was elected on the basis of the new
Constitution framed by the Constituent Assembly. Both the Muslim
League and the Congress accepted the plan.
Consequently, elections were held in July 1946 for the formation
of a Constituent Assembly. The Congress secured 205 out of 214
General seats. The Muslim League got 73 out of 78 Muslim seats.
An Interim Government was formed under the leadership of
Jawaharlal Nehru on 2 September 1946.
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Mountbatten Plan (1947)
On 20 February l947, Prime Minister Atlee
announced in the House of Commons the definite
intention of the British Government to transfer power
to responsible Indian hands by a date not later than
June 1948. Thus, to effect the transference of that
power Atlee decided to send Lord Mountbatten as
Viceroy to India.
Lord Mountbatten armed with vast powers became India’s
Viceroy on 24 March 1947. The partition of India and the creation of
Pakistan appeared inevitable to him. After extensive consultation
Lord Mountbatten put forth the plan of partition of India on 3 June
1947. The Congress and the Muslim League ultimately approved
the Mountbatten Plan.
Indian Independence Act 1947
The British Government accorded formal approval to the
Mountbatten Plan by enacting the Indian Independence Act on 18
July 1947. The salient features of this Act were:
LORD MOUNTBATTEN
Indian Independence
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The partition of the country into India and Pakistan would
come into effect from 15 August 1947.
The British Government would transfer all powers to
these two Dominions.
A Boundary Commission would demarcate the
boundaries of the provinces of the Punjab and Bengal.
The Act provided for the transfer of power to the
Constituent Assemblies of the two Dominions, which
will have full authority to frame their respective
Constitutions.
The Radcliff Boundary Commission drew the boundary line
separating India and Pakistan. On 15th August 1947 India, and on
the 14th August Pakistan came into existence as two independent
states. Lord Mountbatten was made the first Governor General of
Independent India, whereas Mohammad Ali Jinnah became the first
Governor General of Pakistan. The most tragic incident occurred on
30 January 1948, when Mahatma Gandhi – the father of the nationon his way to a prayer meeting was assassinated by Nathuram Godse.
Learning Outcome
After studying this lesson students would acquire knowledge about
1. Gandhi’s early experiments of Satyagraha made him a mass
leader.
2. The Non-Cooperation movement and its success.
3. The political activities between 1922 and 1930 such as
Swaraj politics and anti-Simon struggle.
4. The Civil Disobedience Movement, Round Table Conference
and the Poona Pact.
5. The Quit India Movement and its impact.
6. The role of INA in the freedom struggle.
7. The Cabinet Mission to the Independence of India.
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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The Kheda Satyagraha was launched by Gandhi in support of

1. The Rowlat Act was passed in the year ….
2. The Poorna Swaraj Resolution was passed at ….
3. The Communal Award was announced by the British Prime
Minister …….
III. Match the following.
1. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre a. 1923
2. Swaraj Party b. 1931
3. Dandi March c. 1930
4. Poona Pact d. 1919
5. Gandhi-Irwin Pact e. 1932
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
correct.
a) According to the Rowlat Act, any person could be arrested on
the basis of suspicion.
b) The Khilafat Day was observed on 19th October 1919.
c) The plan of Non Cooperation was approved by the Indian
National Congress at the Lahore session.
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d) The Fourteen Points of the Muslim League was submitted by
Muhammad Ansari.
V. State whether the following statements are True or False.
1. The chief cause of the Khilafat Movement was the defeat of
Turkey in the First World War.
2. The agreement between Dr. Ambedkar and the British
government was called as the ‘Poona Pact’.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. Khilafat Movement
2. Swaraj Party
3. Dandi March
4. Indian National Army
5. Cabinet Mission
6. Mountbatten Plan
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Write a note on the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
2. Bring out the significance of the Non-Cooperation Movement.
3. Discuss the salient features of the Nehru Report.
4. Write a note on the Poona Pact.
5. Examine the provisions of the Indian Independence Act.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Give an account of the Civil-Disobedience Movement.
2. Estimate role of Mahatma Gandhi in the Indian Freedom
Struggle.
3. Discuss the important events