Delhi sultanate

LESSON 16
DELHI SULTANATE
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. Political History of Delhi Sultanate.
2. Slave Dynasty – Aibak, Iltutmish, Raziya, Balban.
3. Khaljis – Alauddin Khalji’s achievements.
4. Tughlaqs – Mahmud-bin-Tughlaq and his experiments.
5. Firoz Tughlaq and his administration.
6. Sayyids and Lodis.
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3. Second Ilbari dynasty (1266-1290) founded by Balban.
Qutbuddin Aibak (1206-1210)
Qutbuddin Aibak was a slave of
Muhammad Ghori, who made him the Governor
of his Indian possessions. He set up his military
headquarters at Indraprasta, near Delhi. He raised
a standing army and established his hold over north
India even during the life time of Ghori. After the

the kingdom of Ghori and thus founded the Slave dynasty as well as the
Delhi Sultanate. He assumed the title Sultan and made Lahore his capital.
His rule lasted for a short period of four years. Muslim writers call
Aibak Lakh Baksh or giver of lakhs because he gave liberal donations
to them. Aibak patronized the great scholar Hasan Nizami. He also
started the construction of after the name of a famous Sufi saint Khwaja
Qutbuddin Bakthiyar. It was later completed by Iltutmish. Aibak died
suddenly while playing chaugan (horse polo) in 1210. He was
succeeded by his son Aram Baksh, who was replaced by Iltutmish
after eight months.
Iltutmish (1211-1236)
Iltutmish belonged to the Ilbari tribe and
hence his dynasty was named as Ilbari dynasty.
His half brothers sold him as a slave to Aibak,
who made him his-son-in law by giving his
daughter in marriage to him. Later Aibak
appointed him as iqtadar of Gwalior. In 1211
Iltutmish defeated Aram Baksh and became
Sultan. He shifted his capital from Lahore to
Delhi. During the first ten years of his reign he
QUTB MINAR concentrated on securing his throne from his
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rivals. In the meantime, Temujin popularly known
as Chengiz Khan, the leader of the Mongols,
started invading Central Asia. He defeated
Jalaluddin Mangabarni, the ruler of Kwarizam.
Mangabarni crossed the river Indus and sought
asylum from Iltutmish. Iltutmish refused to give him
shelter in order to save his empire from the
onslaught of the Mongols. Fortunately for
Iltutmish, Chengiz Khan retuned home without
entering into India. In fact, the Mongol policy of
Iltutmish saved India from the wrath of Chengiz
Khan.
Iltutmish marched against Bengal and Bihar and reasserted
his control over them. He also annexed Sind and Multan into the
Delhi Sultanate. He suppressed the Rajput revolts and recovered
Ranthampur, Jalor, Ajmir and Gwalior. He led an expedition against
the Paramaras of Malwa but it was not successful.
Iltutmish was a great statesman. He received the mansur, the
letter of recognition, from the
Abbasid Caliph in 1229 by which he
became the legal sovereign ruler of
India. Later he nominated his
daughter Raziya as his successor.
Thus the hereditary succession to
Delhi Sultanate was initiated by
Iltutmish. He patronized many scholars and a number Sufi saints came
to India during his reign. Minhaj-us-Siraj, Taj-ud-din., Nizam-ul-mulk
Muhammad Janaidi, Malik Qutb-ud-din Hasan and Fakhrul-Mulk Isami
were his contemporary scholars who added grandeur to his court. Apart
from completing the construction of Qutb Minar at Delhi, the tallest
stone tower in India (238 ft.), he built a magnificent mosque at Ajmir.
SILVER TANKA OF ILTUTMISH
PORTRAIT OF
CHENGIZ KHAN
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Iltutmish introduced the Arabic coinage into India and the silver tanka
weighing 175 grams became a standard coin in medieval India. The
silver tanka remained the basis of the modern rupee. Iltutmish had also
created a new class of ruling elite of forty powerful military leaders, the
Forty.
Raziya (1236-1240)
Although Iltutmish nominated his daughter Raziya as his
successor, the Qazi of Delhi and Wazir put Ruknuddin Feroz on the
throne. When the governor of Multan revolted, Ruknuddin marched
to suppress that revolt. Using this opportunity, Raziya with the
support of Amirs of Delhi seized the throne of Delhi Sultanate. She
appointed an Abyssinian slave Yakuth as Master of the Royal
Horses. Also, Raziya discarded the female apparel and held the
court with her face unveiled. She even went for hunting and led the
army. This aroused resentment among the Turkish nobles. In 1240,
Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda revolted against her. She went in
person to suppress the revolt but Altunia killed Yakuth and took
Raziya prisoner. In the meantime, the Turkish nobles put Bahram,
another son of Iltutmish on the throne. However, Raziya won over
her captor, Altunia, and after marrying him proceeded to Delhi. But
she was defeated and killed.
The fall of Raziya paved the way for the ascendancy of the
Forty. In the next six years, Bahram and Masud ruled Delhi. There
ensued a struggle for supremacy between the Sultans and the nobles.
In 1246 Balban succeeded in putting Nasiruddin Mahmud, a
younger son of Iltutmish, as Sultan.
Era of Balban (1246-1287)
Ghiyasuddin Balban, who was also known as Ulugh Khan,
served as Naib or regent to Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud. He also
strengthened his position by marrying his daughter to the Sultan.
Balban was all powerful in the administration but he had to face the
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intrigues of his rivals in the royal court. He had overcome all the
difficulties. In 1266 Nasiruddin Mahmud died without issues and
Balban ascended the throne.
Balban’s experience as the regent made him to understand
the problems of Delhi Sultanate. He knew that the real threat to the
monarchy was from the nobles called the Forty. He was convinced
that only by enhancing the power and authority of the monarchy he
could face the problems. According to Balban the Sultan was God’s
shadow on earth and the recipient of divine grace. Balban introduced
rigorous court discipline and new customs such as prostration and
kissing the Sultan’s feet to prove his superiority over the nobles. He
also introduced the Persian festival of Nauroz to impress the nobles
and people with his wealth and power. He stood forth as the
champion of Turkish nobility. At the same time he did not share
power with other nobles. Indian Muslims were not given important
post in the government. He appointed spies to monitor the activities
of the nobles.
Balban was determined to break the power of the Forty, the
Turkish nobles. He spared only the most obedient nobles and
eliminated all others by fair or foul means. Malik Baqbaq, the
governor of Badaun, was publicly flogged for his cruelty towards
his servants. Haybat Khan, the governor of Oudh, was also punished
for killing a man who was drunk. Sher Khan, the governor of
Bhatinda was poisoned. Instead of expanding his kingdom, Balban
paid more attention to the restoration of law and order. He
established a separate military department – diwan-i-arz – and
reorganized the army. The outskirts of Delhi were often plundered
by the Mewatis. Balban took severe action against them and
prevented such robberies. Robbers were mercilessly pursued and
put to death. As a result, the roads became safe for travel.
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In 1279, Tughril Khan, the governor of Bengal revolted against
Balban. It was suppressed and he was beheaded. In the northwest
the Mongols reappeared and Balban sent his son Prince Mahmud
against them. But the prince was killed in the battle and it was a
moral blow to the Sultan. Balban died in 1287. He was undoubtedly
one of the main architects of the Delhi Sultanate. He enhanced the
power of the monarchy. However, he could not fully safeguard India
from the Mongol invasions.
When Balban died, one of his grandsons Kaiqubad was made
the Sultan of Delhi. After four years of incompetent rule, Jalaluddin
Khalji captured the throne of Delhi in 1290.
The Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320)
The advent of the Khalji dynasty marked the zenith of Muslim
imperialism in India. The founder of the Khalji dynasty was Jalaluddin
Khalji. He was seventy years old when he came to power. He was
generous and lenient. Malik Chhajju, nephew of Balban was allowed
to remain the governor of Kara. His leniency was misunderstood as
weakness. When Chhajju revolted, it was suppressed but he was
pardoned. When the thugs (robbers) looted the country, they were
allowed to go after a severe warning. In 1292 when Malik Chhajju
revolted for the second time, he was replaced by his son-in-law,
Alauddin Khalji. In 1296 Alauddin Khalji took
an expedition to Devagiri and returned to Kara.
During the reception there, Alauddin Khalji
treacherously murdered his father-in-law
Jalaluddin Khalji and usurped the throne of
Delhi.
Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316)
Alauddin Khalji made enormous gifts to
the hostile nobles and Amirs of Delhi to win Alauddin Khalji
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Indian Ocean
Aribian Sea
Bay of Bengal
Kabul
Peshavar
Multan
Delhi Oudh
Chitore
Anhilvara
Prayag
Gaur
Bengal
Warangal
Dauladabad
Madurai
Dwarasamudra
Empire of
Alauddin Khilji
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over them to his side. Those who still opposed him accession were
punished severely. He framed regulations to control the nobles. He
was convinced that the general prosperity of the nobles, intermarriages between noble families, inefficient spy-system and drinking
liquor were the basic reasons for the rebellions. Therefore, he passed
four ordinances. He confiscated the properties of the nobles. The
intelligence system was reorganized and all the secret activities of
the nobles were immediately reported to the Sultan. The public sale
of liquor and drugs was totally stopped. Social gatherings and
festivities without the permission of Sultan were forbidden. By such
harsh measures his reign was free from rebellions.
Reforms of Alauddin Khalji
Alauddin Khalji maintained a large permanent standing army
and paid them in cash from the royal treasury. According the Ferishta,
he recruited 4,75,000 cavalrymen. He introduced the system of
dagh (branding of horses) and prepared huliya (descriptive list of
soldiers). In order to ensure maximum efficiency, a strict review of
army from time to time was carried out.
The introduction of paying salaries in cash to the soldiers led
to price regulations popularly called as Market Reforms. Alauddin
Khalji established four separate markets in Delhi, one for grain;
another for cloth, sugar, dried fruits, butter and oil; a third for horses,
slaves and cattle; and a fourth for miscellaneous commodities. Each
market was under the control of a high officer called Shahna-iMandi. The supply of grain was ensured by holding stocks in
government store-houses. Regulations were issued to fix the price
of all commodities. A separate department called Diwani Riyasat
was created under an officer called Naib-i-Riyasat. Every merchant
was registered under the Market department. There were secret
agents called munhiyans who sent reports to the Sultan regarding
the functioning of these markets. The Sultan also sent slave boys to
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buy various commodities to check prices. Violation of regulations
was severely punished. Harsh punishment was given if any shopkeeper charged a higher price, or tried to cheat by using false weights
and measures. Even during the famine the same price was maintained.
We are not sure whether the market regulations in Delhi were also
applied in the provincial capitals and towns.
Apart from market reforms, Alauddin Khalji took important
steps in the land revenue administration. He was the first Sultan of
Delhi who ordered for the measurement of land. Even the big
landlords could not escape from paying land tax. Land revenue was
collected in cash in order to enable the Sultan to pay the soldiers in
cash. His land revenue reforms provided a basis for the future
reforms of Sher Shah and Akbar.
Military Campaigns
Alauddin Khalji sent his army six times against the Mongols. The
first two was successful. But the third Mongol invader Khwaja came
up to Delhi but they were prevented from entering into the capital city.
The next three Mongol invasions were also dealt with
severely. Thousands of Mongols were killed. The
northwestern frontier was fortified and Gazi Malik
was appointed to as the Warden of Marches to protect
the frontier.
The military conquests of Alauddin Khalji
include his expedition against Gujarat, Mewar and
the Deccan. He sent Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan
to capture Gujarat in 1299. The king and his
daughter escaped while the queen was caught and
sent to Delhi. Kafur, an eunuch, was also taken to Delhi and later
he was made the Malik Naib – military commander. Then in 1301,
Alauddin marched against Ranthampur and after a three month’s
siege it fell. The Rajput women committed jauhar or self-immolation.
Rani Padmini
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Alauddin next turned against Chittor. It was the powerful state in
Rajasthan. The siege lasted for several months. In 1303 Alauddin
stormed the Chittor fort. Raja Ratan Singh and his soldiers fought
valiantly but submitted. The Rajput women including Rani Padmini
performed jauhar. This Padmini episode was graphically mentioned
in the book Padmavath written by Jayasi.
Alauddin Khalji’s greatest achievement was the conquest of
Deccan and the far south. This region was ruled by four important
dynasties – Yadavas of Devagiri, Kakatiyas of Warangal, Hoysalas of
Dwarasamudra and the Pandyas of
Madurai. In Alauddin sent Malik Kafur
against the ruler of Devagiri,
Ramachandra Deva, who submitted and
paid rich tributes. In 1309 Malik Kafur
launched his campaign against Warangal.
Its ruler Pratabarudra Deva was defeated
and enormous booty was collected from
him. Malik Kafur’s next target was the
Hoysala ruler Vira Ballala III. He was defeated and a vast quantity of
booty was seized and sent to Delhi. Kafur next marched against the
Pandyas. Vira Pandya fled the capital Madurai and Kafur seized
enormous wealth from the Pandya kingdom and returned to Delhi.
Alauddin Khalji died in 1316. Although the Sultan was illiterate,
he patronized poets like Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan. He also
built a famous gateway known as Alai Darwaza and constructed a
new capital at Siri.
Mubarak Shah and Khusru Shah were the successors of
Alauddin Khalji. Ghazi Malik, the governor of Dipalpur, killed the
Sultan Khusru Shah and ascended the throne of Delhi under the
title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq in 1320.
ALAI DARWAZA
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The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)
The founder of the Tughlaq dynasty was Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent his son Juna Khan to fight against
Warangal. He defeated Pratabarudra and returned with rich booty.
Ghiyasuddin laid the foundation for Tughlaqabad near Delhi. Ulugh
Khan was said to have treacherously killed his father and ascended
the throne with the title Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1325.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351)
He was a very attractive character in the history of medieval
India owing to his ambitious schemes and novel experiments. His
enterprises and novel experiments ended in miserable failures
because they were all far ahead of their time. He was very tolerant
in religious matters. He maintained diplomatic relations with far off
countries like Egypt, China and Iran. He also introduced many liberal
and beneficial reforms. But all his reforms failed. Contemporary
writers like Isami, Barani and Ibn Battutah were unable to give a
correct picture about his personality. But, Muhammad bin Tughlaq
was the only Delhi Sultan who had received a comprehensive literary,
religious and philosophical education.
Transfer of Capital
Muhammad bin Tughlaq wanted to make Devagiri his second
capital so that he might be able to control South India better. In
1327 he made extensive preparations for the transfer of royal
household and the ulemas and Sufis from Delhi to Devagiri, which
was renamed as Daulatabad. When they resisted the Sultan enforced
his orders ruthlessly and caused great hardship of the population of
Delhi. The distance between these two places was more than 1500
kilometres. Many people died during the rigorous journey in the
summer. After two years, the Sultan abandoned Daulatabad and
asked them to return to Delhi.
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Token Currency
In 1329-30 Muhammad bin
Tughlaq introduced a token currency.
There was a shortage of silver through
out the world in the fourteenth
century. Kublai Khan issued paper
money in China. In the same manner, Muhammad bin Tughlaq issued
copper coins at par with the value of the silver tanka coins. But he
was not able to prevent forging the new coins. The goldsmiths began
to forge the token coins on a large scale. Soon the new coins were
not accepted in the markets. Finally, Muhammad bin Tughlaq
stopped the circulation of token currency and promised to exchange
silver coins for the copper coins. Many people exchanged the new
coins but the treasury became empty. According the Barani, the
heap of copper coins remained lying on roadside in Tughlaqabad.
Taxation in Doab
The failure of these two experiments affected the prestige of
the Sultan and enormous money was wasted. In order to overcome
financial difficulties, Muhammad bin Tughlaq increased the land
revenue on the farmers of Doab (land between Ganges and Yamuna
rivers). It was an excessive and arbitrary step on the farmers. A
severe famine was also ravaging that region at that time. It had
resulted in a serious peasant revolts. They fled from the villages but
Muhammad bin Tughlaq took harsh measures to capture and punish
them. The revolts were crushed.
Agricultural Reforms
However, the Sultan realized later that adequate relief measures
and the promotion of agriculture were the real solution to the
problem. He launched a scheme by which takkavi loans (loans for
cultivation) were given to the farmers to buy seed and to extend
COPPER COINS OF
MUHAMMAD BIN TUGHLAQ
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cultivation. A separate department for agriculture, Diwan- i- Kohi
was established. Model farm under the state was created in an area
of 64 square miles for which the government spent seventy lakh
tankas. This experiment was further continued by Firoz Tughlaq.
Rebellions
The latter part of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign witnessed a
spate of rebellions by the nobles and provincial governors. The
rebellion of Hasan Shah resulted in the establishment of the Madurai
Sultanate. In 1336 the Vijayanagar kingdom was founded. In 1347
Bhamini kingdom was established. The governors of Oudh, Multan
and Sind revolted against the authority of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
In Gujarat Taghi rose in revolt against the Sultan who spent nearly
three years in chasing him. Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s health became
worse and he died in 1351. According to Baduani, the Sultan was
freed from his people and the people from the Sultan. According to
Barani, Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a mixture of opposites. His
reign marked the beginning of the process of its decline.
Firoz Tughlaq (1351-1388)
After the death of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq in 1351 Firoz
Tughlaq had the unique distinction of being chosen as sultan by the
nobles. He appointed Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal, a Telugu Brahmin
convert as wazir (prime minister). The wazir helped the Sultan in his
administration and maintained the prestige of the Sultanate during
this period.
Military Campaigns
After his accession Firoz had to face the problem of preventing
the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate. He tried to safeguard his
authority over north India instead of reasserting his authority over
the Deccan and south India. He led two expeditions to Bengal but
they were not successful. Bengal became free from the control of
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Delhi Sultanate. Firoz led a campaign against Jajnagar (modern
Orissa). He returned with rich booty acquired from the temples. He
marched against Nagarkot and made its ruler to pay tributes. During
this campaign the Sultan collected 1300 Sanskrit manuscripts from
the Jawalamukhi temple library and got them translated into Persian.
Firoz next marched against Thatta in the Sind region and crushed a
rebellion there.
Administrative Reforms
The reign of Firoz Tughlaq was more notable for his
administration. He strictly followed the advice of the ulemas in
running the administration. He pleased the nobles and assured
hereditary succession to their properties. Thus the iqta system was
not only revived but also it was made hereditary. As per the Islamic
law he levied the taxes. Jiziya was strictly imposed on non-Muslims.
He was the first Sultan to impose irrigation tax. But at the same time
he dug irrigation canals and wells. The longest canal was about 200
kilometres from Sutlej to Hansi. Another canal was between Yamuna
and Hissar. There were about 1200 fruit gardens in and around
Delhi yielding more revenue. The special tax on 28 items was
abolished by him since they were against the Islamic law. He also
developed royal factories called karkhanas in which thousands of
slaves were employed. About 300 new towns were built during his
reign. The famous among them was Firozabad near Red Fort in
Delhi, now called Firoz Shah Kotla. Old monuments like Jama
Masjid and Qutb-Minar were also repaired.
A new department called Diwan-i-Khairat was created to
take care of orphans and widows. Free hospitals and marriage
bureaus for poor Muslims were also established. Firoz patronized
scholars like Barani and Afif. As he was guided by the ulemas, he
was intolerant towards Shia Muslims and Sufis. He treated Hindus
as second grade citizens and imposed Jiziya. In this respect he was
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the precursor of Sikandar Lodi and Aurangazeb. Also he increased
the number of slaves by capturing the defeated soldiers and young
persons. In his regime the number of slaves had increased to one
lakh eighty thousand. When Firoz died in 1388 the struggle for power
between the Sultan and the nobles started once again. His successors
had to face the rebellion of the slaves created by Firoz.
In the following years, the Delhi Sultanate had disintegrated
further. Many provinces like Malwa and Gujarat declared their
independence. The invasion of Timur in 1398 had worsened the
situation. When Timur entered Delhi there was no opposition and
he sacked Delhi for three days murdering thousands of people and
looting enormous wealth. He withdrew from India in 1399 and his
invasion in fact delivered a death blow to the Tughlaq dynasty.
Sayyids (1414-1451)
Before his departure from India, Timur appointed Khizr Khan as
governor of Multan. He captured Delhi and founded the Sayyid dynasty
in 1414. He tried to consolidate the Delhi Sultanate but in vain. He died
in 1421 and was succeeded by his son, Mubarak Shah. Muhammad
Shah who succeeded him was always busy against conspirators and
gradually lost control over his nobles. Buhlul Khan Lodi dominated
everything. Muhammad Shah died in 1445 and was succeeded by his
son Alam Shah (1445-1451) the weakest of the Sayyid princes. He
handed over the throne to Buhlul Lodi and retired to Badaun.
Lodis (1451-1526)
The Lodis, who succeeded Sayyids, were Afghans. Buhlul
Lodi was the first Afghan ruler while his predecessors were all Turks.
He died in 1489 and was succeeded by his son, Sikandar Lodi.
Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517) was the greatest of the three Lodi
sovereigns. He brought the whole of Bihar under his control, many
Rajput chiefs were defeated. He attacked Bengal and forced its ruler
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to conclude a treaty with him, and extended his empire from the Punjab
to Bihar. He was a good administrator. Roads were laid and many
irrigational facilities were provided for the benefit of the peasantry.
Despite certain laudable qualities, he was a bigot. He destroyed many
Hindu temples and imposed many restrictions on the Hindus. Yet, he
was one of the great Lodi sultans who made the sultanate strong and
powerful.
Sikandar Lodi was succeeded by his eldest son Ibrahim Lodi
who was arrogant. He insulted his nobles openly in court and humiliated
them. Those nobles who revolted were put to death. His own uncle,
Alauddin revolted. Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of the Punjab was
insulted and disaffection between king and courtier became very
common. Greatly displeased by the arrogance of Ibrahim, Daulat Khan
Lodi invited Babur to invade India. Babur marched against Delhi and
defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat (1526).
The Afghan kingdom lasted for only seventy-five years.
Learning Outcome
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
1. Political History of Delhi Sultanate from 1206 to 1526
A.D.
2. The rulers of Slave Dynasty – Aibak, Iltutmish, Raziya,
Balban – and their achievements.
3. Khalji Dynasty – Alauddin Khalji’s military achievements
and reforms.
4. Tughlaq Dynasty – Mahmud-bin-Tughlaq’s achievements
and his administrative experiments.
5. Firoz Tughlaq and his administration.
6. Sayyids and Lodis and the decline of Delhi Sultanate.
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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. Arabic coinage of tanka was introduced in India by

1. Ramachandra Deva was the ruler of ……
2. Author of the book Padmavathi was …..
3. …… collected Sanskrit manuscripts from the library at
Jawalamukhi temple.
4. The last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate was ……
III. Match the following.
1. Mahmud-bin-Tughlaq a) Theory of Kingship
2. Alauddin Khalji b) Hasan Nizami
3. Balban c) Market Reforms
4. Qutbuddin Aibak d) Token Currency
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
a) The agricultural department, Diwan-i-Kohi was established
by Alauddin Khalji.
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b) Alai Darwaza was built by Mahmud-bin-Tughlaq.
c) The department called Diwan-i-Khairat was created by Firoz
Tughlaq to take care of orphans and widows.
d) Iltutmish introduced the Persian festival of Nauroz to impress
the nobles and people.
V. State whether the following statements are True or
False.
1. Tughril Khan, the governor of Bengal revolted against Balban.
2. Firoz Tughlaq patronized poets like Amir Khusrau.
3. Daulat Khan Lodi invited Babur to invade India.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. Raziya
2. The Forty
3. Token Currency
4. Sayyids
5. Lodis
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Assess the achievements of Qutbuddin Aibak.
2. Examine the Market reforms of Alauddin Khalji.
3. Write a note on the South Indian expedition of Malik Kafur.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Give an estimate of the achievements of Iltutmish.
2. Examine the rule of Balban and his theory of kingship.
3. Evaluate the personality of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.
4. Write an essay on the reforms of Firoz Tughlaq.
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Administration
The establishment and expansion of the Delhi Sultanate led to
the evolution of a powerful and efficient administrative system. At
its zenith the authority of Delhi Sultan had extended as far south as
Madurai. Although the Delhi Sultanate had disintegrated, their
administrative system made a powerful impact on the Indian
provincial kingdoms and later on the Mughal system of administration.
The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic state with its religion Islam.
The Sultans considered themselves as representatives of the Caliph.
They included the name of the Caliph in the khutba or prayer and
inscribed it on their coins. Although Balban called himself the shadow
of God, he continued to practice of including the name of Caliph in
the khutba and coins. Iltutmish, Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz
Tughlaq obtained mansur or letter of permission from the Caliph.
The office of the Sultan was the most important in the
administrative system. He was the ultimate authority for the military,
LESSON 17
INDIA UNDER THE DELHI SULTANATE
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. Administration under the Delhi Sultanate.
2. Economic Condition under the Delhi Sultanate.
3. Social Life under the Delhi Sultanate.
4. Art and architecture of the Delhi Sultanate.
5. Literary Development.
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legal and political activities. There was no clear law of succession
during this period. All the sons had equal claim to the throne. Iltutmish
even nominated his daughter in preference to his sons. But such
nominations or successions were to be accepted by the nobles.
Sometimes ulemas played crucial role in accepting the succession
to the throne. However, the military superiority remained the main
factor in matters of succession.
Central Government
The Sultan was assisted by a number of departments and
officials in his administration. The post of Naib was the most powerful
one. The Naib practically enjoyed all the powers of the Sultan and
exercised general control over all the departments. Next to him was
the Wazir who was heading the finance department called Diwani
Wizarat.
The military department was called Diwani Ariz. It was
headed by Ariz-i-mumalik. He was responsible for recruiting the
soldiers and administering the military department. He was not the
commander-in-chief of the army. The Sultan himself was the
commander-in-chief of the army. The military department was first
set up by Balban and it was further improved by Alauddin Khalji
under whom the strength of the army crossed three lakh soldiers.
Alauddin introduced the system of branding of the horses and
payment of salary in cash. Cavalry was given importance under the
Delhi Sultanate.
Diwani Rasalat was the department of religious affairs. It
was headed by chief Sadr. Grants were made by this department
for the construction and maintenance of mosques, tombs and
madrasas. The head of the judicial department was the chief Qazi.
Other judges or qazis were appointed in various parts of the
Sultanate. Muslim personal law or sharia was followed in civil
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matters. The Hindus were governed by their own personal law and
their cases were dispensed by the village panchayats. The criminal
law was based on the rules and regulations made by the Sultans.
The department of correspondence was called Diwani Insha. All
the correspondence between the ruler and the officials was dealt
with by this department.
Local Administration
The provinces under the Delhi Sultanate were called iqtas.
They were initially under the control of the nobles. But the governors
of the provinces were called the muqtis or walis. They were to
maintain law and order and collect the land revenue. The provinces
were divided into shiqs and the next division was pargana. The
shiq was under the control of shiqdar. The pargana comprising a
number of villages was headed by amil. The village remained the
basic unit of the administration. The village headman was known as
muqaddam or chaudhri. The village accountant was called patwari.
Economy
After consolidating their position in India, the Delhi Sultans
introduced reforms in the land revenue administration. The lands
were classified into three categories:
1. iqta land – lands assigned to officials as iqtas instead of
payment for their services.
2. khalisa land – land under the direct control of the Sultan and
the revenues collected were spent for the maintenance of royal
court and royal household.
3. inam land – land assigned or granted to religious leaders or
religious institutions.
The peasantry paid one third of their produce as land revenue,
and sometimes even one half of the produce. They also paid other
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taxes and always led a hand-to-mouth living. Frequent famines made
their lives more miserable.
However, Sultans like Muhammad bi Tughlaq and Firoz
Tughlaq took efforts to enhance agricultural production by providing
irrigational facilities and by providing takkavi loans. They also
encouraged the farmers to cultivate superior crop like wheat instead
of barley. Firoz encouraged the growth of horticulture. Muhammad
bin Tughlaq created a separate agricultural department, Diwani
Kohi.
During the Sultanate period, the process of urbanization gained
momentum. A number of cities and towns had grown during this
period. Lahore, Multan, Broach, Anhilwara, Laknauti, Daulatabad,
Delhi and Jaunpur were important among them. Delhi remained the
largest city in the East. The growth of trade and commerce was
described by contemporary writers. India exported a large number
of commodities to the countries on the Persian Gulf and West Asia
and also to South East Asian countries. Overseas trade was under
the control of Multanis and Afghan Muslims. Inland trade was
dominated by the Gujarat Marwari merchants and Muslim Bohra
merchants. Construction of roads and their maintenance facilitated
for smooth transport and communication. Particularly the royal roads
were kept in good shape. Sarais or rest houses on the highways
were maintained for the convenience of the travelers.
Cotton textile and silk industry flourished in this period.
Sericulture was introduced on a large scale which made India less
dependent on other countries for the import of raw silk. Paper
industry had grown and there was an extensive use of paper from
14th and 15th centuries. Other crafts like leather-making, metal-crafts
and carpet-weaving flourished due to the increasing demand. The
royal karkhanas supplied the goods needed to the Sultan and his
household. They manufactured costly articles made of gold, silver
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and gold ware. The nobles also aped the life style of Sultans and
indulged in luxurious life. They were well paid and accumulated
enormous wealth.
The system of coinage had also developed during the Delhi
Sultanate. Iltutmish issued several types of silver tankas. One silver
tanka was divided into 48 jitals during the Khalji rule and 50 jitals
during the Tughlaq rule. Gold coins or dinars became popular during
the reign of Alauddin Khalji after his South Indian conquests. Copper
coins were less in number and dateless. Muhammad bin Tughlaq
had not only experimented token currency but also issued several
types of gold and silver coins. They were minted at eight different
places. At least twenty five varieties of gold coins were issued by
him.
Social Life
There was little change in the structure of the Hindu society
during this period. Traditional caste system with the Brahmins on
the upper strata of the society was prevalent. The subservient position
of women also continued and the practice of sati was widely
prevalent. The seclusion of women and the wearing of purdah
became common among the upper class women. The Arabs and
Turks brought the purdah system into India and it became
widespread among the Hindu women in the upper classes of north
India.
During the Sultanate period, the Muslim society remained
divided into several ethnic and racial groups. The Turks, Iranians,
Afghans and Indian Muslims developed exclusively and there were
no intermarriages between these groups. Hindu converts from lower
castes were also not given equal respect. The Muslim nobles
occupied high offices and very rarely the Hindu nobles were given
high position in the government. The Hindus were considered zimmis
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or protected people for which they were forced to pay a tax called
jiziya. In the beginning jiziya was collected as part of land tax.
Firoz Tughlaq separated it from the land revenue and collected jiziya
as a separate tax. Sometimes Brahmins were exempted from paying
jiziya.
Art and Architecture
The art and architecture of the Delhi Sultanate period was
distinct from the Indian style. The Turks
introduced arches, domes, lofty towers
or minarets and decorations using the
Arabic script. They used the skill of the
Indian stone cutters. They also added
colour to their buildings by using
marbles, red and yellow sand stones.
In the beginning, they converted temples and other structures
demolished into mosques. For example, the Quwwat-ul-Islam
mosque near Qutub Minar in Delhi was built by using the materials
obtained from destroying many Hindu and Jain temples. But later,
they began to construct new structures. The most magnificent building
of the 13th century was the Qutub Minar which was founded by
Aibek and completed by Iltutmish. This seventy one metre tower
was dedicated to the Sufi saint Qutbuddin Bakthiyar Kaki. The
balconies of this tower were projected from the main building and it
was the proof of the architectural skills of that period. Later, Alauddin
Khalji added an entrance to the Qutub Minar called Alai Darwaza.
The dome of this arch was built on scientific lines.
The buildings of the Tughlaq period were constructed by
combining arch and dome. They also used the cheaper and easily
available grey colour stones. The palace complex called Tughlaqabad
with its beautiful lake was built during the period of Ghyasuddin
QUWWAT-UL-ISLAM MOSQUE
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Tughlaq. Muhammad bin Tughlaq built the tomb of Ghyasuddin on
a high platform. The Kotla fort at Delhi was the creation of Firoz
Tughlaq. The Lodi garden in Delhi was the example for the
architecture of the Lodis.
Music
New musical instruments such as sarangi and rabab were
introduced during this period. Amir Khusrau introduced many new
ragas such as ghora and sanam. He evolved a new style of light
music known as qwalis by blending the Hindu and Iranian systems.
The invention of sitar was also attributed to him. The Indian classical
work Ragadarpan was translated into Persian during the reign of
Firoz Tughlaq. Pir Bhodan, a Sufi saint was one of the great
musicians of this period. Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was a great
lover of music. He encouraged the composition of a great musical
work called Man Kautuhal.
Literature
The Delhi Sultans patronized learning and literature. Many of
them had great love for Arabic and Persian literature. Learned men
came from Persia and Persian language got encouragement from
the rulers. Besides theology and poetry, the
writing of history was also encouraged. Some
of the Sultans had their own court historians.
The most famous historians of this period were
Hasan Nizami, Minhaj-us-Siraj, Ziauddin
Barani, and Shams-Siraj Afif. Barani’s Tarikhi-Firoz Shahi contains the history of Tughlaq
dynasty. Minhaj-us-Siraj wrote Tabaqat-iNasari, a general history of Muslim dynasties
up to 1260.
AMIR KHUSRAU
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Amir Khusrau (1252-1325) was the famous Persian writer of
this period. He wrote a number of poems. He experimented with several
poetical forms and created a new style of Persian poetry called Sabaqi-Hind or the Indian style. He also wrote some Hindi verses. Amir
Khusrau’s Khazain-ul-Futuh speaks about Alauddin’s conquests. His
famous workTughlaq Namadeals with the rise of Ghyiasuddin Tughlaq.
Sanskrit and Persian functioned as link languages in the Delhi
Sultanate. Zia Nakshabi was the first to translate Sanskrit stories into
Persian. The book Tutu Nama or Book of the Parrot became popular
and translated into Turkish and later into many European languages.
The famous Rajatarangini written by Kalhana belonged to the period
of Zain-ul-Abidin, the ruler of Kashmir. Many Sanskrit works on
medicine and music were translated into Persian.
In Arabic, Alberuni’s Kitab-ul-Hind is the most famous work.
Regional languages also developed during this period. Chand Baradi
was the famous Hindi poet of this period. Bengali literature had also
developed and Nusrat Shah patronized the translation of Mahabaratha
into Bengali. The Bakthi cult led to development of Gujarati and Marathi
languages. The Vijayanagar Empire patronized Telugu and Kannada
literature.
Learning Outcome
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
1. Central government and Local administration under the
Delhi Sultanate.
2. Economic life of the people of India under the Delhi
Sultanate.
3. Social condition and the impact of Muslim rule on Indian
society.
4. Architectural contributions of the Delhi Sultanate.
5. Persian and other scholars lived during the Delhi
Sultanate and their contribution.
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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The governors of the provinces in Delhi Sultanate were called
the

1. The military department under the Delhi Sultanate was called
……
2. New ragas such as ghora and sanam were introduced by …….
III. Match the following.
1. Minhaj-us-Siraj a) Rajatarangini
2. Amir Khusrau b) Tabaqat-i-Nasari
3. Kalhana c) Kitab-ul-Hind
4. Alberuni d) Sabaq-i-Hind
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
a) Iqta land is the land assigned to officials instead of payment
for their services.
b) Khalisa land is the land under the direct control of village
councils.
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c) Inam land is the land assigned to soldiers for their services in
wars.
d) Diwan-i-Kohi was the department of Land Revenue.
V. State whether the following statements are True or
False.
1. The finance department under the Delhi Sultanate was called
Diwani Wizarat.
2. The Indian classical work Ragadarpan was translated into
Sanskrit.
3. The Hindus were considered zimmis and they were forced to
pay a tax called jiziya.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. Diwani Wizarat
2. Coinage under the Delhi Sultanate.
3. Amir Khusrau
4. Qutub Minar
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Give a brief account of local administration under the Delhi
Sultanate.
2. Trace the economic condition under the Delhi Sultanate.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Examine the administration of the Delhi Sultanate.
2. Evaluate the cultural contributions of the Sultans of Delhi.