The Mugal Empire

LESSON 20
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. Political History of the Mughal Empire.
2. Babur and his achievements.
3. Humayuns’ difficulties and the Sur interregnum.
4. Akbar and his achievements – Religious policy.
5. Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
6. Aurangazeb and his religious policy.
7. Causes for the decline of the Mughal empire.
BABUR
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Military Conquests
On the eve of Babur’s invasion of India, there were five
prominent Muslim rulers – the Sultans of Delhi, Gujarat, Malwa,
Bengal and the Deccan – and two prominent Hindu rulers – Rana
Sangha of Mewar and the Vijayanagar Empire. Once again by the
end of 1525, Babur started from Kabul to conquer India. He
occupied Lahore easily by defeating its governor, Daulat Khan Lodi.
Then he proceeded against Delhi where Ibrahim Lodi was the Sultan.
On 21st April 1526 the first Battle of Panipat took place between
Babur and Ibrahim Lodi, who was killed in the battle. Babur’s
success was due his cavalry and artillery. Babur occupied Delhi
and sent his son Humayun to seize Agra. Babur proclaimed himself
as “Emperor of Hindustan”.
His subsequent victories over Rana Sangha and the Afghans
secured his position as the ruler of India. Rana Sangha of Mewar
was a great Rajput warrior. He marched against Babur and in the
Battle of Khanua (near Agra) held in 1527 Babur won a decisive
victory over him. Babur assumed the title Ghazi.
In 1528, Babur captured Chanderi from another Rajput ruler
Medini Rai. In the next year, Babur defeated the Afghans in the
Battle of Gogra in Bihar. By these victories, Babur consolidated his
power in India. Babur died at Agra in 1530 at the age of forty
seven.
Estimate of Babur
Babur was a great statesman and a man of solid achievements.
He was also a great scholar in Arabic and Persian languages. Turki
was his mother tongue. He wrote his memoirs, Tuzuk-i-Baburi in
Turki language. It provides a vivid account of India. He frankly
confesses his own failures without suppressing any facts. He was
also a naturalist and described the flora and fauna of India.
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Humayun (1530-1540)
Humayun was the eldest son of Babur.
Humayun means “fortune” but he remained the
most unfortunate ruler of the Mughal Empire.
Humayun had three brothers, Kamran, Askari
and Hindal. Humayun divided the empire among
his brothers but this proved to be a great blunder
on his part. Kamran was given Kabul and

When Humayun was busy with fighting the Afghans in the
east, he got the news that Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was advancing
towards Delhi. Therefore, he hastily concluded a treaty with the
Afghan leader Sher Khan (later Sher Shah) and proceeded towards
Gujarat.
Humayun captured Gujarat from Bahadur Shah and appointed
Askari as its governor. But soon Bahadur Shah recovered Gujarat
from Askari who fled from there. In the meantime Sher Khan became
powerful in the east. Humayun marched against him and in the Battle
of Chausa, held in 1539, Sher Khan destroyed the Mughal army
and Humayun escaped from there. Humayun reached Agra to
negotiate with his brothers. But as they were not cooperative,
Humayun was forced to fight with Sher Khan alone in the Battle of
Bilgram in 1540. This battle was also known as Battle of Kanauj.
Humayun was thoroughly defeated by Sher Khan. After losing his
kingdom, Humayun became an exile for the next fifteen years.
Sur Interregnum (1540-1555)
The founder of the Sur dynasty was Sher Shah, whose original
name was Farid. He was the son of Hasan Khan, a jagirdar of
Sasaram in Bihar. Later, Farid served under the Afghan ruler of
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Bihar, who gave him the title Sher Khan for his bravery. We have
already seen how he defeated Humayun at the Battle of Chausa
and became the ruler of Delhi in 1540.
Sher Shah Sur (1540-1545)
Sher Shah waged extensive wars with the
Rajputs and expanded his empire. His conquests
include Punjab, Malwa, Sind, Multan and
Bundelkhand. His empire consisted of the whole of
North India except Assam, Nepal, Kashmir and
Gujarat.
Sher Shah’s Administration
Although his rule lasted for five years, he
organized a brilliant administrative system. The central government
consisted of several departments. The king was assisted by four
important ministers:
1. Diwan –i- Wizarat – also called as Wazir – in charge
of Revenue and Finance.
2. Diwan-i-Ariz – in charge of Army.
3. Diwan-i-Rasalat- Foreign Minister.
4. Diwan-i-Insha- Minister for Communications.
Sher Shah’s empire was divided into forty seven sarkars.
Chief Shiqdar (law and order) and Chief Munsif (judge) were the
two officers in charge of the administration in each sarkar. Each
sarkar was divided into several parganas. Shiqdar (military
officer), Amin (land revenue), Fotedar (treasurer) Karkuns
(accountants) were in charge of the administration of each pargana.
There were also many administrative units called iqtas.
SHER SHAH
SUR
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The land revenue administration was well organized under
Sher Shah. Land survey was carefully done. All cultivable lands
were classified into three classes – good, middle and bad. The state’s
share was one third of the average produce and it was paid in cash
or crop. His revenue reforms increased the revenue of the state.
Sher Shah introduced new silver coins called “Dam” and they were
in circulation till 1835.
Sher Shah had also improved the communications by laying
four important highways. They were: 1. Sonargaon to Sind 2. Agra
to Burhampur 3. Jodhpur to Chittor and 4. Lahore to Multan. Rest
houses were built on the highways for the convenience of the
travelers. Police was efficiently reorganized and crime was less during
his regime.
The military administration was also efficiently reorganized
and Sher Shah borrowed many ideas like the branding of horses
from Alauddin Khalji.
Estimate of Sher Shah
Sher Shah remained a pious Muslim and generally tolerant
towards other religions. He employed Hindus in important offices.
He was also a patron of art and architecture. He built a new city on
the banks of the river Yamuna near Delhi. Now the old fort called
Purana Qila and its mosque is alone surviving. He also built a
Mausoleum at Sasaram, which is considered as one of the master
pieces of Indian architecture. Sher Shah also patronized the learned
men. Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote the famous Hindi work
Padmavat during his reign.
After Sher Shah’s death in 1545 his successors ruled till 1555
when Humayun reconquered India.
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Humayun (1555-1556)
When Humayun left India in 1540, he married Hamida Banu
Begum on his way to Sind. When they stayed in Amorkot, a Hindu
kingdom ruled by Rana Prasad, Akbar was born in 1542. Humayun
then proceeded to Iran and sought help from its ruler. He later defeated
his brothers, Kamran and Askari. In the meantime the Sur dynasty in
India was declining rapidly. In 1555, Humayun defeated the Afghans
and recovered the Mughal throne. After six months, he died in 1556
due to his fall from the staircase of his library. Although Humayun was
not a good General and warrior, he was kind and generous. He was
also learned and a student of mathematics, astronomy and astrology.
He also loved painting and wrote poetry in Persian language.
Akbar (1556-1605)
Akbar was one of the greatest monarchs of India. He
succeeded the throne after his father Humayun’s death. But his
position was dangerous because Delhi was seized
by the Afghans. Their commander-in-Chief, Hemu,
was in charge of it. In the second Battle of Panipat
in 1556, Hemu was almost on the point of victory.
But an arrow pierced his eye and he became
unconscious. His army fled and the fortune
favoured Akbar. The Mughal victory was decisive.
During the first five years of Akbar’s reign,
Bairam Khan acted as his regent. He consolidated the Mughal
empire. After five years he was removed by Akbar due to court
intrigues and sent to Mecca. But on his way Bairam was killed by
an Afghan.
Akbar’s military conquests were extensive. He conquered
northern India from Agra to Gujarat and then from Agra to Bengal.
He strengthened the northwest frontier. Later, he went to the Deccan.
AKBAR
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Relations with Rajputs
The Rajput policy of Akbar was notable. He married the
Rajput princess, the daughter of Raja Bharamal. It was a turning
point in the history of Mughals. Rajputs served the Mughals for four
generations. Many of them rose to the positions of military generals.
Raja Bhagawan Das and Raja Man Singh were given senior positions
in the administration by Akbar. One by one, all Rajput states
submitted to Akbar.
But the Ranas of Mewar continued to defy despite several
defeats. In the Battle of Haldighati, Rana Pratap Singh was severely
defeated by the Mughal army led by Man Singh in 1576. Following
the defeat of Mewar, most of the leading Rajput rulers had accepted
Akbar’s suzerainty.
Akbar’s Rajput policy was combined with a broad religious
toleration. He abolished the pilgrim tax and later the jiziya. The Rajput
policy of Akbar proved to be beneficial to the Mughal state as well
as to the Rajputs. The alliance secured to the Mughals the services
of the bravest warriors. On the other hand it ensured peace in
Rajasthan and a number of Rajputs who joined the Mughal service
rose to important positions.
Religious Policy
Akbar rose to fame in the pages of history due to his religious
policy. Various factors were responsible for his religious ideas. The
most important among them were his early contacts with the sufi
saints, the teachings of his tutor Abdul Latif, his marriage with Rajput
women, his association with intellectual giants like Shaikh Mubarak
and his two illustrious sons – Abul Faizi and Abul Fazl – and his
ambition to establish an empire in Hindustan.
In the beginning of his life, Akbar was a pious Muslim. Soon
after marrying Jodh Bai of Amber, he abolished the pilgrim tax and
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in 1562, he abolished jiziya. He allowed his Hindu wives to worship
their own gods. Later, he became a skeptical Muslim. In 1575, he
ordered for the construction of Ibadat Khana (House of worship)
at his new capital Fatepur Sikri. Akbar invited learned scholars from
all religions like Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity and Zoroastrianism.
He disliked the interference of the Muslim Ulemas in political
matters. In 1579, he issued the “Infallibility Decree” by which he
asserted his religious powers.
In 1582, he promulgated a new religion called Din Ilahi or
Divine Faith. It believes in one God. It contained good points of all
religions. Its basis was rational. It upholds no dogma. It was aimed
at bridging the gulf that separated different religions. However, his
new faith proved to be a failure. It fizzled out after his death. Even
during his life time, it had only fifteen followers including Birbal.
Akbar did not compel anyone to his new faith.
Land Revenue Administration
Akbar made some experiments in the land revenue
administration with the help of Raja Todar Mal. The land revenue
system of Akbar was called Zabti or Bandobast system. It was
further improved by Raja Todar Mal. It was known as Dahsala
System which was completed in 1580. By this system, Todar Mal
introduced a uniform system of land measurement. The revenue was
fixed on the average yield of land assessed on the basis of past ten
years. The land was also divided into four categories – Polaj
(cultivated every year), Parauti (once in two years), Chachar (once
in three or four years) and Banjar (once in five or more years).
Payment of revenue was made generally in cash.
Mansabdari System
Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system in his administration.
Under this system every officer was assigned a rank (mansab). The
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lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5000 for the nobles. Princes
of royal blood received even higher ranks. The ranks were divided
into two – zat and sawar. Zat means personal and it fixed the
personal status of a person. Sawar rank indicated the number of
cavalrymen of a person who was required to maintain. Every sawar
had to maintain at least two horses. The mansab rank was not
hereditary. All appointments and promotions as well as dismissals
were directly made by the emperor.
Jahangir (1605-1627)
When Akbar died, Prince Salim
succeeded with the title Jahangir (Conqueror
of World) in 1605. Jahangir’s rule witnessed a
spate of rebellions. His son Khusrau revolted
but was defeated and imprisoned. One of his
supporters, Guru Arjun, the fifth Sikh Guru, was
beheaded.
Nur Jahan
In 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa who was known as
Nur Jahan (Light of World). Her father Itimaduddauala was a
respectable person. He was given the post
of chief diwan. Other members of her family
also benefited from this alliance. Nur Jahan’s
elder brother Asaf Khan was appointed as
Khan-i-Saman, a post reserved for the
nobles. In 1612, Asaf Khan’s daughter,
Arjumand Banu Begum (later known as
Mumtaj), married Jahangir’s third son, prince
Khurram (later Shah Jahan).
It was believed by some historians that Nur Jahan formed a
group of “junta” and this led to two factions in the Mughal court.
JAHANGIR
NUR JAHAN
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This drove Shah Jahan into rebellion against his father in 1622, since
he felt that Jahangir was completely under Nur Jahan’s influence.
However, this view is not accepted by some other historians. Till
Jahangir became weak due to ill health, he only took important
political decisions. It is revealed from his autobiography.
However, it is clear that Nur Jahan dominated the royal
household and set new fashions based on Persian traditions. She
encouraged Persian art and culture in the court. She was a constant
companion of Jahangir and even joined him in his hunting.
The rise of Shah Jahan was due to his personal ambitions. He
rose in revolt against his father who ordered him to go to Kandahar.
This rebellion distracted the activities of the empire for four years.
After Jahangir’s death in 1627, Shah Jahan reached Agra with the
support of the nobles and the army. Nur Jahan was given a pension
and lived a retired life till her death eighteen years later.
Shah Jahan (1627-1658)
Shah Jahan launched a prolonged
campaign in the northwest frontier to recover
Kandahar and other ancestral lands. The
Mughal army lost more than five thousand lives
during the successive invasions between 1639
and 1647. Then Shah Jahan realized the futility
of his ambition and stopped fighting.
His Deccan policy was more successful.
He defeated the forces of Ahmadnagar and annexed it. Both Bijapur
and Golkonda signed a treaty with the emperor. Shah Jahan carved
four Mughal provinces in the Deccan – Khandesh, Berar, Telungana
and Daulatabad. They were put under the control of his son
Aurangazeb.
SHAH JAHAN AND
MUMTAJ – A PAINTING
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War of Succession
The last years of Shah Jahan’s reign were clouded by a bitter
war of succession among his four sons – Dara Shikoh (crown
prince), Shuja (governor of Bengal), Aurangazeb (governor of
Deccan) and Murad Baksh (governor of Malwa and Gujarat).
Towards the end of 1657, Shah Jahan fell ill at Delhi for some time
but later recovered. But the princes started fighting for the Mughal
throne.
Aurangazeb emerged victorious in this struggle. He entered
the Agra fort after defeating Dara. He forced Shah Jahan to surrender.
Shah Jahan was confined to the female apartments in the Agra fort
and strictly put under vigil. But he was not ill-treated. Shah Jahan
lived for eight long years lovingly nursed by his daughter Jahanara.
He died in 1666 and buried beside his wife’s grave in the Taj Mahal.
Aurangazeb (1658-1707)
Aurangazeb was one of the ablest of the
Mughal kings. He assumed the title Alamgir, World
Conqueror. His military campaigns in his first ten
years of reign were a great success. He
suppressed the minor revolts. But he faced serious
difficulties in the latter part of his reign. The Jats
and Satnamis and also the Sikhs revolted against
him. These revolts were induced by his harsh
religious policy.
Deccan Policy
The Deccan policy of the Mughals started from the reign of
Akbar, who conquered Khandesh and Berar. Jahangir fought against
Malik Amber of Ahmadnagar. During the Shah Jahan’s reign,
Aurangazeb, as governor of Deccan, followed an aggressive Deccan
policy. When he became the Mughal emperor, for the first twenty
AURANGAZEB
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Panipat
Deli
Rajputs Agra
Rajaputs
Allahabad
Patna
Gondwana
Diu
Mumbai
Goa
Calicut
Cochin Polygars
Bay of Bengal
Indian Ocean
Aribian Sea
Marathas
Jats
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five years, he concentrated on the northwest frontier. At that time,
the Maratha ruler, Sivaji carved out an independent Maratha
kingdom in the territories of north and south Konkan.
To contain the spread of the Marathas, Aurangazeb decided
to invade Bijapur and Golkonda. He defeated Sikandar Shah of
Bijapur and annexed his kingdom. Then, he proceeded against
Golkonda and eliminated the Kutb Shahi dynasty. It was also
annexed by him. In fact, the destruction of the Deccan kingdoms
was a political blunder on the part of Aurangazeb. The barrier
between the Mughals and the Marathas was removed and there
ensued a direct confrontation between them. Also, his Deccan
campaigns exhausted the Mughal treasury. According to J.N. Sarkar,
the Deccan ulcer ruined Aurangazeb.
Religious Policy
Aurangazeb was a staunch and orthodox Muslim in his
personal life. His ideal was to transform India into an Islamic state.
He created a separate department to enforce moral codes under a
high-powered officer called Muhtasib. Drinking was prohibited.
Cultivation and use of bhang and other drugs were banned.
Aurangazeb forbade music in the Mughal court. He discontinued
the practice of Jarokhadarshan. He also discontinued the celebration
of Dasarah and royal astronomers and astrologers were also
dismissed from service.
Initially Aurangazeb banned the construction of new Hindu
temples and repair of old temples. Then he began a policy of
destroying Hindu temples. The celebrated temples at Mathura and
Benares were reduced to ruins. In 1679, he reimposed jiziya and
pilgrim tax. He was also not tolerant of other Muslim sects. The
celebration of Muharram was stopped. His invasions against the
Deccan sultanates were partly due to his hatred of the Shia faith.
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He was also against the Sikhs and he executed the ninth Sikh Guru
Tej Bahadur. This had resulted in the transformation of Sikhs into a
warring community.
His religious policy was responsible for turning the Rajputs,
the Marathas and Sikhs into the enemies of Mughal empire. It had
also resulted in the rebellions of the Jats of Mathura and the Satnamis
of Mewar. Therefore, Aurangazeb was held responsible for the
decline of the Mughal empire.
Personality and Character of Aurangazeb
In his private life, Aurangazeb was industrious and disciplined.
He was very simple in food and dress. He earned money for his
personal expenses by copying Quran and selling those copies. He
did not consume wine. He was learned and proficient in Arabic and
Persian languages. He was a lover of books. He was devoted to his
religion and conducted prayers five times a day. He strictly observed
the Ramzan fasting.
In the political field, Aurangazeb committed serious mistakes.
He misunderstood the true nature of the Maratha movement and
antagonized them. Also, he failed to solve the Maratha problem
and left an open sore. His policy towards Shia Deccan Sultanates
also proved to be a wrong policy.
His religious policy was also not successful. Aurangazeb was
an orthodox Sunni Muslim. But his move to apply his religious
thought rigidly in a non-Muslim society was a failure. His antagonistic
policies towards non-Muslims did not help him to rally the Muslims
to his side. On the other hand it had strengthened political enemies
of the Mughal Empire.
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Causes for the Downfall of the Mughals
The Mughal Empire declined rapidly after the death of
Aurangazeb. The Mughal court became the scene of factions among
the nobles. The weakness of the empire was exposed when Nadir
Shah imprisoned the Mughal Emperor and looted Delhi in 1739.
The causes for the downfall of the Mughal Empire were varied. To
some extent, the religious and Deccan policies of Aurangazeb
contributed to its decline. The weak successors and demoralization
of the Mughal army also paved the way for it. The vastness of the
empire became unwieldy. The financial difficulties due to continuous
wars led to the decline. The neglect of the sea power by the Mughals
was felt when the Europeans began to settle in India. Further, the
invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali weakened the
Mughal state. Thus the decline and downfall of the Mughal Empire
was due to the combination of political, social and economic factors.
Learning Outcome
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
1. Political History of the Mughal Empire from Babur to
Aurangazeb.
2. Achievements of Babur and the difficulties of Humayun.
3. Sur interregnum – Sher Shah’s administration.
4. The reign of Akbar – his administration, Mansabdari
system and religious policy.
5. Jahangir, Shah Jahan and the War of Succession.
6. Deccan policy of Aurangazeb and his religious policy.
7. Decline of the Mughal empire
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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. Babur wrote Tuzuk-i-Baburi in the language of
(a) Persian (b) Hindi
(c) Arabic (d) Turki
2. The original name of Shah Jahan was
(a) Salim (b) Khurram
(c) Dara Shikoh (d) Farid

2. In the Battle of Haldighati …….. was defeated by the Mughal
army led by …….
3. During the last years of his life Shah Jahan was lovingly nursed
by his daughter …….
III. Match the following.
1. Battle of Haldighati a) 1540
2. Second Battle of Panipat b) 1539
3. Battle of Chausa c) 1576
4. Battle of Bilgram d) 1556
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
a) The Deccan policy of Akbar led to the decline of the Mughals.
b) The religious policy of Aurangazeb was one among the causes
for the decline of the Mughal empire.
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c) Aurangazeb had supported the Muslim Sultanates of Deccan.
d) The antagonistic policies of Aurangazeb towards non-Muslims
helped him to rally the Muslims to his side.
V. State whether the following statements are True or
False.
1. Babur defeated the Rajputs in the Battle of Gogra in Bihar.
2. The Zabti system was further improved by Raja Todar Mal.
3. Shah Jahan executed the ninth Sikh Guru Tej Bahadur.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. Tuzuk-i-Baburi.
2. Sur Interregnum.
3. Raja Todar Mal.
4. Din Ilahi.
5. Nur Jahan.
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Bring out the achievements of Babur.
2. Write a brief not on the War of Succession in the last years of
Shah Jahan.
3. Analyse the causes for the decline of the Mughal Empire.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Give an account of the salient features of the administration
of Sher Shah.
2. Assess the achievements of Akbar.
3. Evaluate the religious policy of Aurangazeb.