Imperial Cholas

LESSON 13
IMPERIAL CHOLAS
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. A brief history of early Cholas.
2. Military conquests and other achievements of Rajaraja I.
3. Campaigns of Rajendra I and his accomplishments.
4. Salient features of the Chola administration.
5. Literature, Art and architecture of the Cholas.
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Nataraja temple at Chidambaram with a golden roof. The two famous
Uttiramerur inscriptions that give a detailed account of the village
administration under the Cholas belong to his reign. After a gap of
thirty years, the Cholas regained their supremacy under Rajaraja I.
Rajaraja I (985 – 1014 A.D.)
It was under Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra
I that the Chola power reached its highest point of
glory. His military conquests were:
1. The defeat of the Chera ruler
Bhaskararavivarman in the naval battle of
Kandalursalai and the destruction of the
Chera navy.
2. The defeat of the Pandya ruler, Amarabhujanga and
establishment of Chola authority in the Pandya country.
3. The conquest of Gangavadi, Tadigaipadi and Nolambapadi
located in the Mysore region.
4. The invasion of Sri Lanka which was entrusted to his son
Rajendra I. As the Sri Lankan king Mahinda V fled away
from his country, the Cholas annexed the northern Sri Lanka.
The capital was shifted from Anuradhapura to Polanaruva
where a Shiva temple was built
5. The Chola victory over the growing power of the Western
Chalukyas of Kalyani. Satyasraya was defeated and Rajaraja
I captured the Raichur Doab, Banavasi and other places.
Hence the Chola power extended up to the river Tungabadhra.
6. The restoration of Vengi throne to its rulers Saktivarman and
Vimaladitya by defeating the Telugu Chodas. Rajaraja gave
his daughter Kundavai in marriage to Vimaladitya.
STATUTE OF
RAJARAJA
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7. Rajaraja’s last military achievement was a naval expedition
against the Maldive Islands which were conquered.
By these conquests, the extent of the Chola empire under
Rajaraja I included the Pandya, Chera and the Tondaimandalam
regions of Tamil Nadu and the Gangavadi, Nolambapadi and the
Telugu Choda territories in the Deccan and the northern part of
Ceylon and the Maldive Islands beyond India. Rajaraja assumed a
number of titles like Mummidi Chola, Jayankonda and
Sivapadasekara. He was a devout follower of Saivism. He
completed the construction of the famous Rajarajeswara temple or
Brihadeeswara temple at Tanjore in 1010 A.D. He also helped in
the construction of a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam.
Rajendra I (1012-1044 A.D.)
Rajendra had demonstrated his military ability by participating
in his father’s campaigns. He continued his father’s policy of
aggressive conquests and expansion. His important wars were:
1. Mahinda V, the king of Sri Lanka attempted to recover from
the Cholas the northern part of Ceylon. Rajendra defeated
him and seized the southern Sri Lanka. Thus the whole of Sri
Lanka was made part of the Chola Empire.
2. He reasserted the Chola authority over the Chera and Pandya
countries.
3. He defeated Jayasimha II, the Western Chalukya king and
the river Tungabadhra was recognised as the boundary between the Cholas and Chalukyas.
4. His most famous military enterprise was his expedition to north
India. The Chola army crossed the Ganges by defeating a
number of rulers on its way. Rajendra defeated Mahipala I of
Bengal. To commemorate this successful north-Indian
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campaign Rajendra founded the city of
Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed the famous
Rajesvaram temple in that city. He also excavated a large
irrigation tank called Cholagangam on the western side of the
city.
5. Another famous venture of Rajendra was his naval expedition
to Kadaram or Sri Vijaya. It is difficult to pin point the real
object of the expedition. Whatever its objects were, the naval
expedition was a complete success. A number of places were
occupied by Chola forces. But it was only temporary and no
permanent annexation of these places was contemplated. He
assumed the title Kadaramkondan.
6. Rajendra I had put down all rebellions and kept his empire in
tact.
At the death of Rajendra I the extent of the Chola Empire
was at its peak. The river Tungabadhra was the northern boundary.
The Pandya, Kerala and Mysore regions and also Sri Lanka formed
part of the empire. He gave his daughter Ammangadevi to the Vengi
Chalukya prince and further continued the matrimonial alliance
initiated by his father. Rajendra I assumed a number of titles, the
most famous being Mudikondan, Gangaikondan, Kadaram Kondan
and Pandita Cholan. Like his father he was also a devout Saiva and
built a temple for that god at the new capital Gangaikondacholapuram.
He made liberal endowments to this temple and to the Lord Nataraja
temple at Chidambaram. He was also tolerant towards the Vaishnava
and Buddhist sects.
After Rajendra I, the greatness of the Chola power was
preserved by rulers like Kulottunga I and Kulottunga III. Kulottunga
I was the grandson of Rajendra I through his daughter Ammangadevi.
He succeeded the Chola throne and thus united the Vengi kingdom
with the Chola Empire. During his reign Sri Lanka became
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Bay of Bengal
Indian Ocean
Aribian Sea
Korki
Madurai
Uraiyur Thanjavur
Gangaikondacholapuram
Utiramerur
Kanchi
Takkolam
Nellore
Rajahmundry
Sakkarakkottam
Kalyani
Yadavas
W. Chalukyas
Malkhed
Kakatiyas
Kadanbas
Bavanasi
Gangavadi
Cholas
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independent. Subsequently, Vengi and the Mysore region were
captured by the western Chalukyas. Kulottunga I sent a large
embassy of 72 merchants to China and maintained cordial relations
with the kingdom of Sri Vijaya. Under Kulottunga III the central
authority became weak. The rise of the feudatories like the
Kadavarayas and the emergence of the Pandya power as a challenge
to Chola supremacy contributed to the ultimate downfall of the Chola
Empire. Rajendra III was the last Chola king who was defeated by
Jatavarman Sundarapandya II. The Chola country was absorbed
into the Pandya Empire.
Chola Administration
Central Government
The Cholas had an excellent system of administration. The
emperor or king was at the top of the administration. The extent
and resources of the Chola Empire increased the power and prestige
of monarchy. The big capital cities like Tanjore and
Gangaikondacholapuram, the large royal courts and extensive grants
to the temples reveal the authority of the king. They undertook royal
tours to increase the efficiency of the administration. There was
elaborate administrative machinery comprising various officials called
perundanam and sirudanam.
Revenue
The land revenue department was well organized. It was called
as puravuvarithinaikkalam. All lands were carefully surveyed and
classified for assessment of revenue. The residential portion of the
village was called ur nattam. These and other lands such as the
lands belonging to temples were exempted from tax. Besides land
revenue, there were tolls and customs on goods taken from one
place to another, various kinds of professional taxes, dues levied
on ceremonial occasions like marriages and judicial fines. During
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the hard times, there were remission of taxes and Kulottunga I
became famous by abolishing tolls and earned the title – Sungam
Tavirtta Cholan. The main items of government expenditure were
the king and his court, army and navy, roads, irrigation tanks and
canals.
Military Administration
The Cholas maintained a regular standing army consisting of
elephants, cavalry, infantry and navy. About seventy regiments were
mentioned in the inscriptions. The royal troops were called
Kaikkolaperumpadai. Within this there was a personal troop to
defend the king known as Velaikkarar. Attention was given to the
training of the army and military cantonments called kadagams
existed. The Cholas paid special attention to their navy. The naval
achievements of the Tamils reached its climax under the Cholas.
They controlled the Malabar and Coromandal coasts. In fact, the
Bay of Bengal became a Chola lake for sometime.
Provincial Administration
The Chola Empire was divided into mandalams and each
mandalam into valanadus and nadus. In each nadu there were a
number of autonomous villages. The royal princes or officers were
in charge of mandalams. The valanadu was under periyanattar
and nadu under nattar. The town was known as nagaram and it
was under the administration of a council called nagarattar.
Village Assemblies
The system of village autonomy with sabhas and their
committees developed through the ages and reached its culmination
during the Chola rule. Two inscriptions belonging to the period of
Parantaka I found at Uttiramerur provide details of the formation
and functions of village councils. That village was divided into thirty
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wards and each was to nominate its members to the village council.
The qualifications to become a ward member were:
a. Ownership of at least one fourth veli of land.
b. Own residence.
c. Above thirty years and below seventy years of age.
d. Knowledge of Vedas.
However, certain norms of disqualification were also
mentioned in the inscriptions. They were:
a. Those who had been members of the committees for
the past three years.
b. Those who had failed to submit accounts as committee
members.
c. Those who had committed sins.
d. Those who had stolen the property of others.
From the persons duly nominated, one was to be chosen for
each ward by kudavolai system for a year. The names of eligible
persons were written on palm-leaves and put into a pot. A young
boy or girl would take out thirty names each for one ward. They
were divided into six variyams such as samvatsaravariyam,
erivariyam, thotta variyam, pancha variyam, pon variyam and
puravuvari variyam to take up six different functions of the village
administration. The committee members were called
variyapperumakkal. They usually met in the temple or under a
tree and passed resolutions. The number of committees and ward
members varied from village to village.
Socio-economic Life
Caste system was widely prevalent during the Chola period.
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Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoyed special privileges. The inscriptions
of the later period of the Chola rule mention about two major
divisions among the castes – Valangai and Idangai castes. However,
there was cooperation among various castes and sub-castes in social
and religious life. The position of women did not improve. The
practice of ‘sati’ was prevalent among the royal families. The
devadasi system or dancing girls attached to temples emerged during
this period.
Both Saivism and Vaishnavism continued to flourish during
the Chola period. A number of temples were built with the patronage
of Chola kings and queens. The temples remained centres of
economic activity during this period. The mathas had great influence
during this period. Both agriculture and industry flourished.
Reclamation of forest lands and the construction
and maintenance of irrigation tanks led to
agricultural prosperity. The weaving industry,
particularly the silk-weaving at Kanchi
flourished. The metal works developed owing
to great demand of images for temples and
utensils. Commerce and trade were brisk with
trunk roads or peruvazhis and merchant guilds.
Gold, silver and copper coins were issued in
plenty at various denominations. Commercial
contacts between the Chola Empire and China, Sumatra, Java and
Arabia were extensively prevalent. Arabian horses were imported
in large numbers to strengthen the cavalry.
Education and Literature
Education was also given importance. Besides the temples
and mathas as educational centres, several educational institutions
also flourished. The inscription at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal and
Thirubhuvanai provide details of the colleges existed in these places.
GOLD COIN OF
RAJARAJA CHOLA
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Apart from the Vedas and Epics, subjects like mathematics and
medicine were taught in these institutions. Endowment of lands was
made to run these institutions.
The development of Tamil literature reached its peak during the
Chola period. Sivakasintamani written by Thiruthakkadevar and
Kundalakesi belonged to 10th century. The Ramayana composed by
Kamban and the Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar
are the two master-pieces of this age. Jayankondar’s
Kalingattupparani describes the Kalinga war fought by Kulotunga I.
The Moovarula written by Ottakuthar depicts the life of three Chola
kings. The Nalavenba was written by Pugalendi. The works on Tamil
grammar like Kalladam by Kalladanar, Yapperungalam by
Amirthasagarar, a Jain, Nannul by Pavanandhi and Virasoliyam by
Buddhamitra were the products of the Chola age.
Art and Architecture
The Dravidian style of art and
architecture reached its perfection under
the Cholas. They built enormous
temples. The chief feature of the Chola
temple is the
vimana. The early
Chola temples
were found at
Narthamalai and Kodumbalur in Pudukottai district
and at Srinivasanallur in Tiruchirappalli district. The
Big Temple at Tanjore built by Rajaraja I is a
master-piece of South Indian art and architecture.
It consists of the vimana, ardhamandapa,
mahamandapa and a large pavilion in the front
known as the Nandimandapa. Another notable
contribution made by the Cholas to temple
Chola Bronze
Nataraja
Pragadeeswara Temple,
Tanjore
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Learning Outcome
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
1. The rise of the Imperial Cholas.
2. The military accomplishments of Rajaraja I and his
personality.
3. Rajendra I and his military conquests.
4. Village administration of the Cholas and its significance.
5. Cultural achievements of the Imperial Cholas.
architecture is the Siva temple at
Gangaikondacholapuram built by
Rajendra I. The Airavathesvara temple
at Darasuram in Tanjore District and the
Kampaharesvara
temple at
Tribhuvanam are
examples of later Chola temples.
The Cholas also made rich contributions
to the art of sculpture. The walls of the Chola
temples such as the Tanjore and
Gangaikondacholapuram temples contain
numerous icons of large size with fine
execution. The bronzes of the Chola period
are world-famous. The bronze statues of
Nataraja or dancing Siva are master pieces.
The Chola paintings were found on the walls
of Narthamalai and Tanjore temples.
Darasuram Sculptures
Gangaikonda
Cholapuram Temple
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MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The Chola ruler who faced a defeat at the Battle of Takkolam

1. The naval battle of Kandalursalai took place during the reign
of ……
2. The irrigation tank Cholagangam was constructed at …… by
…..
3. Kudavolai system was described in the inscriptions found at
……
III. Match the following.
1. Uttiramerur inscriptions a) Rajaraja I
2. Sungam Tavirtta Chola b) Rajendra I
3. Mudikondan c) Kulottunga I
4. Jayankondan d) Parantaka I
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
a) Rajaraja I took an expedition to Sri Vijaya.
b) Rajaraja I shifted his capital to Gangaikondacholapuram.
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c) Southern part of Sri Lanka was annexed by Rajaraja I.
d) Sri Lanka declared its independence during the reign of
Rajendra I.
V. State whether the following statements are True or
False.
1. Rajaraja I helped to construct a Buddhist monastery at
Tanjore.
2. Rajendra I captured the kingdom of Sri Vijaya.
3. Jayankondar’s Kalingattupparani describes the Kalinga war
fought by Kulotunga I
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. Brihadeeswaram.
2. Gangaikondacholapuram.
3. Kudavolai system.
4. Development of educational institutions under the Cholas.
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Describe the society and economy under the Imperial Cholas.
2. Write the development of Tamil literature under the Cholas.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Examine the achievements of Rajaraja I.
2. Assess the military conquests of Rajendra I.
3. Describe the salient features of the Chola’s administration.